Abstract

Dikaya, L.G., Schapkin, S.A. & Gusev, A.N. (1992).
Adaptation to sleep deprivation: an analysis of EEG and performance indicators. Physiologia Cheloveka, 16, 42-50. (Russian).

In experiments with sustained operations including 56- and 72-hours sleep deprivation (SD) male subjects (12 persons) had to discriminate a weak auditory targets from non-targets. Detectability index d`, criterion (beta), reaction time (RT), event-related brain potentials (ERP) and changes in electroencephalogram (EEG) were estimated. The 72 h SD compared with 56 h SD had more impact upon overall performance level. In both SD-conditions performance dropped dramatically in the morning after 24 h SD, then increased slightly and stabilized at the middle or middle-low level until the end of the experiment. After 24 h of SD the response lapses caused by microsleep were observed. Lapses were verified as periods of random responses accompanied by increase in RT, increase in delta power spectra, as well as decrease in alpha and/or beta power spectra. Two types of lapses were obtained: 1) "constructive" - when both spontaneous awakening and restoration of initial level of detectability after lapses were observed; 2) "destructive" - when subject fell asleep and continued the task after experimentator's intervention only. The excluding of lapses before the computation of d' index showed that it did not alter significantly during the time of SD. Resistance of sensory function to SD was proved by ERP results: a non-significant variation of the MMN-component during SD (Naatanen, 1986) was observed, whereas the decrease of the N2-P3 amplitude was significant. These findings do not support the hypothesis that a decrement in overall vigilance level during SD is caused by distortion of sensory discrimination. Decline in effort and/or in resources allocated to the task might be an alternative explanation of performance deterioration. Key words: Adaptation, Sleep Deprivation, Vigilance, Event-Related Potentials.

Schapkin, S. A. (1992).
Analysis of changes in motivation under sustained operations conditions with motivation induction method. In L.G.Dikaya (Ed.) Psychological Methods for Performance Analysis and Control of Mental States. (pp.108-119) Moscow: Institute of Psychology RAS. (Russian).

The Nuttin`s motivation induction method (Nuttin, 1980) was applied to investigate the changes in motivation of subjects who worked under sustained operations including 56- and 72-hours sleep deprivation (SD). Twelve subjects were tested three times (baseline, after 24 h SD, and after 48 h SD) with nineteen inductor-phrases, which they had to complete (e.g. "I wish…", "I would like…", "I try…"). Completions were classified according to Nuttin`s method. Four main classes of completions were emphasized: task-oriented (e.g. "… to keep a good performance", "…to find a new manner to perform the task"), state-oriented (e.g. "… to keep myself sprightly", "… not to fall asleep"), external (e.g. "…to make some renovations at home ", "…to have a rest at the seeside"), defensive completions (e.g. "… nothing", "…to live until 100 years" ). After 24 h SD an amount of both state-oriented and (some subjects) defensive completions increased, while task-oriented ones decreased. This might be due to a drastic shortage of resources after sleep-deprived night. After 48 h SD subjects reported a large number of external goals; it might reflect a symbolic escaping from stressful realities and/or expectations of the end of the experiment. Noteworthy, after 48 h SD in some subjects the increase of task-oriented goals was obtained, whereas in another subjects - it was not; this might be caused by different strategies of adaptation to SD which oriented to task involvement or resource saving respectively. Key words: Motivation, Adaptation, Sleep Deprivation.

Kuhl, J., Schapkin, S. & Gusev, A. (1994).
A theory of volitional inhibition and an empirical test: individual differences in the topography of ERP patterns for action- versus state oriented processing of emotional words. Forschungsberichte aus der Universitaet Osnabrueck. Nr.99, pp. 1-52.

This article provides 1) a theory decribing interactions among brain systems underlying motivation, volition, and cognition and 2) an empirical study examining event-related brain potentials associated with individual differences in volitional coping with negative affect. Two groups were selected on the basis of a self-report measure of action versus state orientation that has been associated in previous research with reliable differences in the efficiency of volitional functions under stress. Visual ERPs were recorded to unilaterally presented positive, negative, and neutral words that should be categorized according to their emotional connotation. The results were consistent with the hypothesis of reduced prefrontal coordination of task-relevant processors in state-oriented subjects, analogous to more severe and more global symptoms observed in patients with prefrontal lesions. The results provide further support for the importance of anterior-posterior in addition to left-right hemisphere gradients in understanding volitional unhibition and related individual differences and disorders, especially depression. Key words: Volition, Personality, Emotion, Stress, Frontal Lobe, Hemispheric Lateralization.

Schapkin, S.A. & Dikaya, L.G. (1996).
Volitional determinants of adaptation to performance under sleep deprivation. Psychologicheski Zurnal, 17, 19-34. (Russian).

The main problem of adaptation to sustained operations including sleep deprivation (SD) is the discrepancy between intention to perform the task requiring effort and great difficulties to realize it because of decreasing in both psychological and physiological activation. Three aspects of adaptation are emphasized in the article: change in allocation of resources, development of new cognitive strategies, development of strategies for emotional coping. It was assumed that these adaptation mechanisms are managed by motivational and volitional dispositions, such as achievement motive (Heckhausen, 1980) and volitional competence (Kuhl, 1994). In experiments with sustained operations including 56- and 72-hours sleep deprivation (SD) subjects (12 persons) had to discriminate a weak auditory targets from non-targets. The electroencephalogram (EEG) was registered during the task. Different aspects of mood which were assessed with self-report measures (SUPOS-Scale, Miksik, 1985). Achievement motive was measured with TAT modification (Heckhausen, 1967). Volitional competence was assessed with Action Control Scale (Kuhl, 1994). According to Kuhl`s concept, action-oriented subjects (AOs) have a high volitional competence, while state- oriented ones (SOs) have low volitional competence. Volitional dispositions were more linked with both performance indexes and changes in emotional state than achievement motive. Between 24 and 72 h of SD AOs compared with SOs tended to 1) perform better; 2) have less response lapses caused by microsleep; 3) describe themselves as less fatigued and less tensed; 4) have less delta activity in the EEG; 5) have more conservative response criterion (beta). It should be noted that the tendencies obtained cannot be verified by means of pure statistics because of small sample of subjects. Nevertheless, the results suggest that motivational strategies including increase in effort can sustain performance for a short period of time only, but not solve the adaptation problem completely. Under SD the volitional processes seem to be more important; they manage the coping with negative emotions aroused by impossibility to perform the task properly and/or worsening of psychophysiological state. Negative emotions might occupy the resources, necessary for a task and therefore they might be responsible for performance deterioration. In contrast, successful coping releases these resources and they may be allocated to the task as it was observed in AOs. Another mechanism to sustain performance during SD is the changing of cognitive strategies of signal detection. Conservative response criterion implemented by AOs might reflect both the increasing selectivity and the concentration on a few significant features of stimuli. This cognitive strategy seems to be appropriate in case of resources` shortage. Increased concentration on a task lead to increased EEG activation, which was found in AOs. It might be concluded that volitional processes co-ordinate different adaptation mechanisms and integrate them into the whole system. Individual differences in volitional competence may be considered to be a predictor of adaptation to sustained operations and sleep deprivation. Key words: Motivation, Volition, Adaptation, Sleep Deprivation.

Kremlev, A.E., Schapkin, S.A., Gusev A. N. (1996).
Testmaker. The computer system for development of psychological tests. Manual. Moscow: UMK "Psychologia" (Russian). 68 p.

The computer system "Testmaker" was initially elaborated for teaching psychology students in psychodiagnostics. The program enables students or beginners to develop a test and consists of the following steps: 1) scales, items, response variants & instruction entering; 2) data collecting; 3) computing of test norms, reliability & validity assessment; 4) questionnaire correcting. Multi-scale profiles, report parameters, test norms, and other functions can be tuned flexibly. Interpretations are generated automatically from text pieces, which correspond to unique interval of scores obtained by participant. Graphics and resident programs may be easily included into testing. Key words: Psychodiagnostics, Computer-Aided Testing, Reliability, Validity. DEMO. (English version of the program is in preparation)

Schapkin, S.A. (1997).
Experimental studies of volitional processes. Book series: Practicum in experimental psychology. Moscow: Smysl. (Russian). 144 p.

History and modern theories of volition are outlined. In detail the action control theory of J. Kuhl (Kuhl, 1994), its theoretical significance and practical applications are reviewed. Main experimental paradigms for testing the theory are also presented: "Learned helplessness", "Memory for intentions", "Negative priming", "Self-discrimination", "Alienation", "Physiological indicators of coping with stress", "Brain mechanisms of the processing of emotions". In each paradigm the problems of experiment planning, data processing and alternatives in interpretation of results are discussed. Each chapter contains examples of Multivariate Analysis of Variance (MANOVA) implemented through SPSS for Windows program. Results of Russian validation of Action Control Scale (Kuhl, 1994), the text of the questionnaire, and test norms are presented. Key words: Volition, Motivation, Experiment, Analysis of Variance.

Schapkin, S. A. (1999).
Computer game: a new field for psychological investigations.Psychologicheski Zurnal, 20, 47-67. (Russian).

The apprehension that computer games lead young users to addiction, increase aggressiveness and have other negative consequences is discussed in the review. However, the most empirical studies in psychology and sociology do not correspond to this point of view. The application of computer games for therapy, education, training as well as research method in psychology is demonstrated. Psychological criteria for classification, creating and expertise of computer games are proposed. Key words: Computer Games, Mental Function, Development.

Schapkin, S. A. Varashkevich S. A. (1999).
Effect of a computer game on mood state and psychomotor performance. Vestnik MGU. Ser. Psychologia. 3, 25-33. (Russian).

The present study is aimed to investigate the influence of computer games (CG) on mood and performance in the monotonous task. It is hypothesized that 1) the CG influences positively both performance and mood state more than the normal rest, and 2) this effect is evident if mental functions involved into the game are quite different from those, that are crucial for the task performance. The main mental functions underlying the data entering task are short-time memory, focused attention, and sequential-analytical information processing. The "Tetris"-like CG, named "Varikol", is developed as the game requiring mental functions, different from those that were involved into the monotonous task. The "Varikol" has various spatial features and sophisticated rules for achieving points, requires mainly the working memory, divided attention and parallel-holistic information processing. Eighty university students participated in the experiment, 40 of them in the individual session and 40 in the group session. Participants had to enter the numeric data into the computer as quickly and accurately as possible during two blocks of 20 minutes each. Between the blocks, 20 participants played the "Varikol" ("gamers"), the other 20 participants had a usual rest ("controls"). Both speed and accuracy of data entering were registered. Different aspects of mood (activity, power, and tension indexes) were assessed twice (before and after the break) with SAN-Scale (Leonova, 1988). In the individual session all participants evaluated their mood as more relaxed, powerful, active and performed better than in the group session. The effect of the CG was observed in the group session only: "gamers" overperformed the "controls". In contrast, the "controls" described themselves as less tensed than "gamers". It is concluded, that the CG increases the activation of the subject in the monotonous task, and thus provides the increase in performance. Negative change in mood state of "gamers" might be caused by difficulties and failures during the game. The attraction of the CG, experience of gamers and their personality traits (e.g. impulsivity, achievement motivation) seem to be important factors mediating the effect of the CG on both mood state and task performance. Key words: Computer Game, Mental Function, Mood State, Psychomotor Performance.

Schapkin, S. A. (2000).
Hemispheric asymmetry in processing of emotional words: effects of extraversion and neuroticism. Voprosi Psichologii. No. 3, 102-116. (Russian).

Effects of brain asymmetry and personality on processing of affective words were investigated in a lexical decision paradigm. Positive, negative, neutral words and non-words were presented unilaterally. Neutral words were recognized better if they were exposed to the left hemisphere, whereas for negative words the right hemisphere advantage was observed. Extraversion had no effect on performance indexes. Persons high in neuroticism (HNs) demonstrated the increased right hemisphere sensitivity, especially for negative stimuli. Persons low in neuroticism (LNs) showed increased sensitivity of the left hemisphere, especially for neutral stimuli. Neither the "right hemisphere hypothesis" nor "valence hypothesis" on lateralization of the processing of emotions were fully confirmed. Each hemisphere seems to exert its effect on emotion through individual processing strategies, which may influence the hemispheric dominance. The data suggest that emotional sensitivity of the HNs causes the deep processing of all stimuli if some of them have emotional features. This strategy might be involved automatically, even if the affective information is not relevant to the task. Processing of different stimulus` features simultaneously might require the right hemisphere processing, as the right hemisphere is more effective in parallel-holistic processing. In contrast, the LNs are less distracted by emotional content of words and seems to use an analytical strategy based on the pure lexical features. Such a strategy of the LNs might cause the involvement of the left hemisphere, which is superior in verbal processing especially if an analytical processing mode is required. The results emphasize the important role of the right hemisphere in regulation of negative emotions and development of neuroticism as a stable personality trait. Key words: Lexical Decision, Emotion, Hemispheric lateralization, Extraversion, Neuroticism.

Schapkin, S. A. (2000).
Russian version of the Mehrabian achievement risk preference scale. Psychologicheski Zurnal. 21, 113-127. (Russian).

The study is intended to develop the Russian version of the Mehrabian Achievement Risk Preference Scale (MARPS). The original seven-point response scale seems to be difficult for practical use and it was reduced to two-point scale. Eight hundred fifty eight university students (212 men and 646 women) participated in the adaptation study. Both male and female forms of the MARPS have high reliability measured by Cronbach`s alpha a = .76, p.<01. The test-retest reliability (Spearman`s correlation) for 70 women was 0.80, (p < .01) and for 70 men was .69, (p < .01). Normal distribution of raw scores was obtained (Kolmogorov`s test of normality, women: l = .55, p < .05, men: l = .51, p < .04). Construct validity of the MARPS was measured by correlation between test scores and expert evaluation of subjects that was made with the seven-point rating scale. The experts (n=35) were students from the same group who had to evaluate whether the subjects have some indexes of achievement motivation: task-orientation, complexity of goals, persistency, readiness to effort etc. Significant correlation was obtained (r = .39, p < 02), and it indicates construct validity of the questionnaire. Confirmatory factor analysis showed that 1/3 of original items had small factor loadings on the first factor (less than .30) and therefore, original items couldn't be explained with the one-factor solution. In contrast, the three-factor model seems to be optimal according to the scree-test. Moreover, in the three-factor model all items, except two, have the factor loadings more than .30. Griffore e Lewis (1978) obtained similar clusters for female and male forms of the MARPS within USA sample and suggested that the use of two different forms is not necessary. Our factor analysis showed that the factor structures are different for women and men in Russia. The first factor for the both forms was named "achievement motive". For women, this factor included items describing valence of the achievement situation, on the one hand, and estimation of success` probability, on the other hand. Remarkably, all the items represented the situations of individual achievement. In contrast, the first factor in men included situations, in which the achievement was affected by social norms. It is assumed that the achievement motive for men is more dependent on social evaluation of their activities than for women and more linked with social competition. This is in the line with results of Gill et al. (1996) who showed that males were higher than females on competitiveness and win orientation. Women differed from and men in the placement of items describing the game activity. For women, the "game" items were placed into the same factor together with the other leisure activities (e.g. cooking) and with socially determined achievement. For men, the game activity was included into the same factor with valence of achievement situations. It might be speculated that for women the game situations are associated mainly with affiliation motive, while for men game provides the achievement situation, in which their abilities can be tested. For woman both valence of the achievement and estimation of success` probability constructed the same factor, whereas for men these situations were placed into different factors. It seems to be likely that achievement motivation for man could be initialized independently by two mechanisms: firstly, by valence of the achievement situation, and secondly, by estimation of success` probability. For women the achievement-oriented activity may be evoked, if both mechanisms are involved into the process of motivation. Key words: Achievement Motive, Factor Analysis, Sex Differences.

Schapkin, S. A., Gusev, A. N. & Kuhl, J. (2000).
Categorization of unilaterally presented emotional words: an ERP analysis. Acta Neurobiologiae Experimentalis. 60, 17-28. (English).

This study is intended to clarify the functional role of different ERP components as indicators of the processing of emotions. The effect of emotional connotation of words on hemispheric lateralization is also explored. Visual ERPs were recorded to unilaterally presented positive, negative, and neutral words that should be categorized according to their emotional connotation. The P2 amplitude was larger to positive than to negative words whereas P3 amplitude was larger to positive words compared with neutral ones. The slow positive wave (SPW) was influenced by words' emotionality at anterior and posterior sites differently. The amplitude of the N1 component was larger in the left hemisphere to contralaterally presented words. The P2 and P3 components were larger over the left hemisphere whereas the N3 and N4 components were larger over the right hemisphere to ipsilateral stimulation. The results support our hypotheses on the functional role of positive ERP components in the processing of an affective word's connotation: the P2 wave reflects a general evaluation of emotional significance, the P3 a task-related decision, and the SPW an additional decision control in the context of the emotional experience of an individual. Neither the "right hemisphere hypothesis" nor "valence hypothesis" on lateralization of the processing of emotions were confirmed. Each hemisphere seems to exert its effect on emotion through specific hemispheric resources that are unequally allocated along the different stages of task processing and may cause alternation of hemispheric dominance. Key words: Information Processing, Emotion, Hemispheric Lateralization, Event-Related Potentials.

Schapkin S. A., Gusev A.N. (2001).
Effects of personality and time of day on vigilance performance. Psychologicheski Zurnal. 22, 61-67. (Russian).

Examined effects of extraversion, anxiety, achievement motive, and time of day on vigilance performance in sixty-six adults, who were tested twice, once between 9.00 and 10.00 AM and once between 19.00 and 20.00 PM. Subjects had to respond to visually presented simple stimuli as quickly as possible. Personality traits were assessed by Eysenck Personality Inventory (EPI), State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI), and Mehrabian Achievement Risk Preference Scale (MARPS). Introverts performed in the morning better than in the evening, while extraverts were less affected by time of day and slightly improved performance in the evening. High achievers performed, in general, better than low achievers and had no performance decrement in the evening. Introverts with high achievement motive demonstrated the shortest, while introverts with low achievement motive - the longest reaction times compared with other personality groups. The results extend the model of M. Himphreys and W. Revelle (1984) and suggest that motivational factors as well as time of day affect performance of introverts more than extraverts. Key words: Vigilance, Time of Day, Extraversion, Anxiety, Achievement Motive.